Impact of crime on individual wellbeing. concentrates upon the consequences of crime, rather than expenditure in anticipation of crime (precautionary measures) or the response to crime by the criminal justice system3. 7We recognize that there are potentially serious confidentiality and institutional review board (IRB) concerns with respect to geographically identifiable data on arrestees and prisoners. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences, 3 Policies and Practices Contributing to High Rates of Incarceration, 4 The Underlying Causes of Rising Incarceration: Crime, Politics, and Social Change, 5 The Crime Prevention Effects of Incarceration, 7 Consequences for Health and Mental Health, 8 Consequences for Employment and Earnings, 12 The Prison in Society: Values and Principles, 13 Findings, Conclusions, and Implications, Appendix A: Supplementary Statement by Ricardo H. Hinojosa, Appendix C: Incarceration in the United States:A Research Agenda, Appendix D: Biographical Sketches of Committee Members. Thus, whether in Chicago in the midwest, New York City in the northeast, Houston in the central southern portion of the country, or Seattle in the northwest, as in other cities across the United States, geographic inequality in incarceration is the norm, with black and poor communities being disproportionately affected. Economic Consequences Apart from the legal consequences, committing a crime can also have serious economic implications. For blocks with the highest rates of incarceration, the taxpayers of New York were spending up to $3 million a year per block to house those incarcerated from that block (Cadora et al., 2003). In a study of a poor Philadelphia community, Goffman (2009) examines how imprisonment and the threat of imprisonment have undermined individual relationships to family, employment, and community life. It is also unclear whether incarceration has the same community impact for whites and blacks. At the most prosaic level, we use the term community here to denote the geographically defined neighborhood where the individuals sent to prison lived before their arrest and to which, in most cases, they will return after they are released from prison. Relying on Hannon and Knapp (2003), Renauer and colleagues (2006) argue that negative binomial models and log transformations may “bend” the data toward artifactual support for nonlinear relationships. 10) The chaotic, broken community stems from these chaotic, broken families. The second question on the consequences of incarceration is largely causal in nature and puts strict demands on the evidence, which we assess in the third section of the chapter. They argue that testing nonlinear effects is problematic with the models used in prior research.3 Using three different estimation techniques, they find a significant negative relationship between incarceration and violent crime at moderate levels but a positive relationship at high levels. Specifically, if criminal justice processing prior to incarceration is causally important, the appropriate counterfactual in a test meant to assess the specific role of high rates of incarceration in a community’s social fabric would be an equally high-crime community with high-arrest rates but low imprisonment. Crime negatively affects overall societal well-being in ways that go beyond the residents of the community in which the crime occurs. cal consequences and, in turn, drive the economic consequences. Consistent with the hypothesis of Clear and Rose (1999), then, high rates of incarceration may add to distrust of the criminal justice system; however, few studies have directly addressed this issue. Researchers could advance understanding of the processes discussed here by beginning to focus more on the communities where individuals returning from prison reside under naturally occurring or equilibrium conditions and by taking into account knowledge gained from life-course criminology. These communities are characterized by high levels of social disadvantage, including poverty; unemployment; dropping out of school; family disruption; and, not surprisingly, high rates of crime, violence, and criminal justice processing in the form of arrests and convictions (Sampson, 2012). In their analysis of the residential blocks in Brooklyn, New York City, with the highest incarceration rates, Cadora and Swartz (1999) find that approximately 10 percent of men aged 16 to 44 were admitted to jail or prison each year. In such a reinforcing system with possible countervailing effects at the aggregate temporal scale, estimating the overall net effect of incarceration is difficult if not impossible, even though it may be causally implicated in the dynamics of community life. Incarceration can exacerbate the problem by encouraging connection with other juveniles that … Moreover, again as noted in Chapter 5, deterrence appears to be linked more closely to the certainty of being apprehended than to the severity of punishment. People admitted to prison per 1,000 adults by census tract of residence with community district borders. The victim of a crime is affected by the crime itself. 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